ANSWERS

1. What is the alternative to hand rearing?
   Finding a suitable foster mother, either a bitch with her own litter or a bitch in pseudocyesis.
2. Why is a foster mother more beneficial to an orphan than hand rearing?
   • It is closer to a natural upbringing and therefore less stressful.
   • An orphan may develop significant psychological problems due to lack of contact with a mother and litter mates.
3. List behavioural problems that may manifest in hand reared orphans in later life.
   • Fear of their own species.
   • Aggression to their own species.
   • Excessive human orientation.
   • Sexual attention directed at humans.
   • Over-dependence on humans leading to separation anxiety.
4. Why is colostrum so important?
   It contains immunoglobulins necessary for 90% of the neonate's passive immunity.
5. If an orphan has not received colostrum from the dam, what alternative source may be used?
   Deep frozen or freeze-dried colostrum from other dams.
6. Why must the neonate receive colostrum within the first few hours after birth? Immunoglobulins are large molecules which can only be taken in by pinocytosis. The small intestine ceases to absorb large molecules after a limited period.
7. Why are commercial milk formulas preferable over home-made milk substitutes?
   • They are nutritionally balanced.
   • They are easier to prepare.
8. How frequently should an orphaned neonate be fed during the first week of life?
   Every 2 hours during the day, and every 4 hours at night.
9. Why is the provision of a warm environment essential in the hand rearing of an orphan?
   Neonates are poikilothermic and unable to regulate their own body temperature. An orphan will have no mother or littermates to snuggle up against to keep warm, therefore a suitable heat source, clean dry bedding and a warm ambient temperature are vital.
10. In addition to feeding and providing warmth, what other aspects of nursing care are beneficial to an orphan?
    • Stimulation and plenty of TLC.
    • Prevention of infection - the orphan should be housed well away from any infectious animals and barrier nursing carried out.
    • Keeping the orphan clean and dry.
    • Stimulation of urination and defecation by gently wiping the genital area with wet cotton wool.
    • Early socialisation with other humans and animals.