ANSWERS

1. List 6 characteristics common to all birds.
   
   • Birds are vertebrates (possess a backbone).
   • Birds are endothermic (warm-blooded and able to regulate their body temperature using physiological control mechanisms).
   • All birds possess wings (but not all can fly).
   • All adult birds possess feathers (known as the plumage).
   • All birds possess a beak.
   • All birds are oviparous (egg laying).
2. How does the blood of birds differ from that of mammals?
   Birds possess nucleated erythrocytes (adult red blood cells). They also have heterophils (not nutrophils).
3. How does the pelvis of birds differ from that of mammals, and why?
   Birds possess an open pubis rather than a symphysis (cartilaginous junction between the 2 pubic bones) in order to enable the passage of eggs.
4. State 2 anatomical features that are common to the order mammalia, but absent in the order aves.
   
   • Teeth.
   • Diaphragm.
5. How many different orders of birds are there?
   28.
6. List 6 common orders of bird and give an example of a species belonging to each.
   
   • Psittaciformes - budgerigar.
   • Passeriformes - canary.
   • Falconiformes - hawk.
   • Strigiformes - owl.
   • Galliformes - pheasant.
   • Anseriformes - duck.
7. What is the common name given to the order passeriformes?
   Perching birds.
8. How do the toes of climbing birds differ to those belonging to perching birds?
   Climbing birds possess 2 forward facing toes and 2 backward facing toes, whilst perching birds posses 3 forward facing toes and 1 backward facing toe.
9. Of the birds listed in your answer to Q6, can you state 2 that are referred to as birds of prey?
   
   • Hawk.
   • Owl.
10. Of the birds listed in your answer to Q6, can you state 1 that is referred to as a game bird?
    Pheasant.
11. List 3 species of bird commonly kept as pets that originate from Australia.
    
    • Budgerigar.
    • Parakeet.
    • Zebra finch.
12. Which species of bird has a particularly well developed quadrate bone and why?
    The parrot. This produces 2 joints between the upper and lower jaw enabling the considerable movement necessary for effective climbing and the opening of fruit and nuts.
13. What is the name of the joint between the upper part of the beak and the rest of the skull?
    The cranio-facial hinge.
14. List 5 ways in which the skeleton of the bird is specially adapted for flight.
    
    • Possession of thin cortices (outer layers of bone) in order to reduce weight.
    • Possession of cavities within some of the bones of the skull in order to reduce weight.
    • Bones may be pneumatised (possess an air sac).
    • Reduction of joints (many of the vertebrae are fused to stabilise the trunk).
    • Enlargement of the keel bone (sternum) in order to accommodate the flight muscles.
15. What is the correct term for the "*** wing"?
    The alula (formed from the much reduced first digit).
16. What proteinaceous substance are feathers composed from?
    Keratin.
17. What are the 2 main functions of feathers?
    
    • Flight.
    • Insulation.
18. List the 3 main types of feather.
    
    • Flight feathers (confined to the wings and tail).
    • Contour feathers (the outer layer of short flexible feathers covering most of the body).
    • Down feathers/filoplumes (the insulating feathers located beneath the contour feathers).
19. When do birds moult?
    Late summer during the mating season.
20. What is meant when a feather is described as "in pin" or "in the blood"?
    The feather is still developing and in possession of a blood vessel that runs up its shaft; thus damage to a feather at this stage will result in haemorrhage.
21. What is the function of the preen gland that is present in some species of bird?
    The production of oil in order to keep the plumage in good condition.
22. Name 2 species of bird that produce a very fine dust that helps to keep the plumage in good condition.
    
    • Cockatiel.
    • Cockatoo.
23. Why do birds possess no teeth?
    Food is either broken up by the beak or swallowed whole. In addition, teeth would cause the skull to be heavier thus hindering flight.
24. What is the function of the crop that is present in some species of bird?
    The crop is a storage organ. In pigeons and parrots, a secretion called crop milk is produced that is used to nourish the young.
25. What is the correct name for a baby bird?
    A fledgling.
26. Can you name the 2 chambers of the stomach that are present in most species of bird?
    
    • Proventriculus - the glandular stomach.
    • Ventriculus (or gizzard) - a thick-walled chamber that may contain grit where food is ground up.
27. Name 1 species of bird that does not possess a ventriculus (or gizzard). Why is this?
    The humming bird; this species survives on a predominantly liquid diet (of nectar) and thus grinding facilities are unnecessary.
28. Why might a budgerigar possess 2 large caeca, whilst the sunbird possesses none at all?
    The caeca are organs providing a site for bacterial digestion of vegetable matter. The budgerigar is herbivorous and requires such organs, whilst the sunbird is nectivorous and therefore does not.
29. What is the cloaca (or vent)?
    In birds, the digestive, urinary and genital tracts all open to the outside through one orifice - this is known as the cloaca (or vent).
30. Why is general anaesthesia more risky in birds that in mammals of a comparable size?
    Birds are particularly sensitive to alterations in the level of inhalation anaesthetic agents, and therefore may have rapid changes in level of conciousness.
31. Explain how you would perform a beak clipping procedure in a budgerigar.
    
    • Warn the owner that handling of the bird may prove stressful and might even result in death should the bird become shocked (especially if the bird is not used to handling).
    • Obtain consent to perform the procedure.
    • Ensure that the consulting room doors and windows are closed and remove any toys and perches from the cage; subdued lighting may help to calm the budgerigar; remove the bird gently from the cage ensuring that the wings are held close to the bird's body to prevent damage by flapping.
    • Enlist an assistant to gently restrain the budgerigar within a small soft towel (care must be taken not to restrict the abdominal muscles which are the main muscles of respiration.
    • Select a suitably sized pair of clippers and try to maintain the original shape by making 2 right angled cuts (beaks have a blood vessel so take care not to cut too short).
    • Advise the owner of suitable items that may help to wear down the beak such as cuttlefish or irregularly shaped applewood perches.
    • Advise that some mite/bacterial infections may cause malformation of the beak and that if the problem recurs, then the veterinary surgeon should be consulted.
32. The veterinary surgeon asks you to administer an intramuscular injection to a parakeet. Why must particular care be taken?
    Birds may be injected intramuscularly into the pectoral muscle, the muscles located on either side of the sternum or the leg muscles. Care must be taken not to restrain the parakeet too tightly (do not restrict the muscles of respiration) but the bird must be kept still otherwise the air sac in the chest may be accidentally injected.
33. List 4 ways in which stress levels may be kept to a minimum when nursing birds.
    
    • Avoid unnecessary handling.
    • Keep the bird in its usual cage if possible in a quiet, elevated area.
    • Partly cover the cage or provide vegetation in which the bird may hide.
    • Keep the bird away from stimulants such as bright light and noise.
34. List suitable foods for the following types of bird: hardbills, softbills, psittacines & raptors. Give an example of a type of bird belonging to each group.
    
    • Hardbills - eg. finch - seeds, fruit.
    • Softbills - eg. mynah bird - fruit, insects.
    • Psittacines - eg. parrot - seeds, fruit, vegetables.
    • Raptors - eg. falcon - meat.
35. What is the average life expectancy of a parrot?
    40 - 50 years.
36. List hazards that may affect birds allowed to fly free within the owner's home.
    
    • Hot-plates.
    • Electrical cables.
    • Electric fans.
    • Cleaning products that may prove poisonous.
    • Lead-based paint pecked from door/window frames.
    • Other household pets - especially cats!
    • Escape via open doors/windows.
37. Why must particular care be taken if introducing an imprinted bird to a cage containing other birds?
    An imprinted bird is one that has been hand-reared and thus considers itself human rather than avian. These birds tend to be affectionate with people, but aggressive with other birds.
38. State the act that forbids the possession of certain falconiform birds of prey unless ringed and registered.
    The Wildlife & Countryside Act 1981.
39. Name 2 aids that enable easier handling of birds of prey.
    
    • Hood.
    • Jesses.
40. What is the name of the causative organism of "scaly leg"/"scaly beak"?
    The Cnemidocoptes mite.
41. What is the name of the causative organism of "bumble foot"?
    Staphylococcus aureus.
42. "Feather cysts" may be genetically predisposed and often affect certain strains of canary. What is the correct term for this condition?
    Hypopteronosis.
43. Name the endoparasite that may infest the upper alimentary tract of birds.
    Capillaria.
44. Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease of birds which may produce either respiratory or gastrointestinal signs. List ways in which you would prevent the spread of infection.
    
    • Wear protective gloves, apron and mask when handling.
    • Keep the bird in isolation.
    • If other birds are hospitalised, ensure that these are handled prior to the infectious case.
    • Dampen the paper at the bottom of the cage prior to moving as the disease is spread by dry faeces.
    • Euthanasia may be necessary due to the human health risk even though the disease is treatable.
45. By what other names might psittacosis be known?
    
    • Chlamydiosis.
    • Orinothosis.
46. Describe the treatment of an egg-bound bird.
    
    • Provide warmth (30 - 32°C).
    • Intramuscular injection of calcium borogluconate.
    • Should the above prove unsuccessful then the egg may be drained with a syringe or surgically removed.
    • Close observation of vital signs and also watch for prolapse of the oviduct or cloaca.
47. Why is respiratory distress a common symptom of iodine deficiency?
    The enlarged thyroid gland exerts pressure on the trachea.
48. Behavioural problems are common in large domestic birds such as parrots and may manifest as one or a combination of the following: feather plucking, nail chewing, self-mutilation and excessive screaming. List 8 stress inducing factors that may contribute to such problems.
    
    • Inadequate nutrition (insufficient food/water, nutrient deficiencies sudden change of diet).
    • Boredom (lack of companionship, lack of toys/stimulation).
    • Lack of privacy.
    • Sexual frustration.
    • Lack of sleep (parrots require 8 - 10 hours of uninterrupted sleep!).
    • Excessive heat.
    • Arid atmosphere.
    • Cigarette smoke.
49. A client telephones the surgery. Her budgerigar has been prescribed a medicated seed which the bird will not eat. What advice would you offer?
    
    • Find out whether the bird is eating at all; if the bird will not eat its regular seed the veterinary surgeon should be consulted.
    • If the bird is eating regular seed but not the medicated seed, suggest that a small quantity of both seeds are mixed and offered (further seed should not be given until this has been eaten); should this prove successful gradually reduce the amount of regular seed until only medicated seed is present.
    • Birds must feed regularly (especially if they are a small species with a high metabolic rate), therefore if the above technique is unsuccessful the veterinary surgeon must be consulted with a view to the provision of an alternative means of medication (injectable drugs or a liquid preparation in the drinking water may be preferable.